Reduction modulo the defining polynomial

In the polynomial representations of fq and fq_nmod, an element of $\mathbb{F}_q = \mathbb{F}_p[x]/(f)$ , $\deg f = d$ , is stored as its representative of degree less than $d$ . A product of two elements is computed as a product of polynomials, of length at most $2d - 1$ , and then reduced modulo $f$ . For the small degrees that are common in practice the reduction costs about as much as the product, so FLINT chooses defining polynomials with few nonzero terms when it can (Defining polynomials) and exploits them.

Throughout, let $\tilde f = f / \operatorname{lc}(f) = x^d + \sum_{k} a_k x^{j_k}$ , with $t$ nonzero terms in total, so that the sum runs over $t - 1$ exponents $0 \le j_k < d$ . The context stores the coefficients $a_k$ and the exponents $j_k$ of the monic polynomial $\tilde f$ , which generates the same ideal as $f$ .

Sparse elimination#

Algorithm 1: Sparse reduction

Input: $R = \sum_{i < \ell} r_i x^i$ .

Output: $R \bmod f$ , in the coefficients $r_0, \ldots, r_{d-1}$ .

For $i = \ell - 1, \ell - 2, \ldots, d$ : for every $k$ , $r_{j_k + i - d} \gets r_{j_k + i - d} - r_i a_k$ ; then $r_i \gets 0$ .
Reduce $r_0, \ldots, r_{d-1}$ modulo $p$ .

Proposition 1. Algorithm 1 computes $R \bmod f$ with $(\ell - d)(t - 1)$ multiplications.

Proof. Step 1 replaces $R$ by $R - r_i x^{i-d} \tilde f$ , which does not change its class modulo $f$ and clears the coefficient of $x^i$ , since $x^{i-d} \tilde f$ has leading term $x^i$ ; the coefficients modified have indices $j_k + i - d < i$ . After the iteration for $i$ , all coefficients of index at least $i$ are zero, so at the end $\deg R < d$ . Each iteration costs $t - 1$ multiplications.

For a product, $\ell = 2d - 1$ , so a trinomial costs $2(d - 1)$ multiplications, much less than a product of polynomials of degree $d - 1$ . _fq_sparse_reduce works with unreduced integer coefficients (fmpz_submul) and reduces modulo $p$ only at the end, so the coefficients grow by about $\log_2 p$ bits per elimination that touches them; this is cheaper than reducing after every step for the small $t$ for which the method is used. _fq_nmod_sparse_reduce reduces after each step and has four variants: for $p = 2$ the update is an exclusive or of bits; if all $a_k$ are 1 (as for $x^d + x^j + 1$ and other polynomials with unit coefficients), only subtractions are needed; for $p < 2^{\mathtt{FLINT\_BITS}/2}$ the update $r + r_i (p - a_k)$ fits in one word and is reduced with a Barrett reduction (n_mod_barrett); otherwise nmod_addmul is used.

Newton division#

For a dense defining polynomial, the reduction is a division with remainder by $f$ using a precomputed power series inverse. Let $\operatorname{rev}_n(g) = x^{n-1} g(1/x)$ denote the reversal of a polynomial of length $n$ . When the context is created, the series $v = \operatorname{rev}_{d+1}(f)^{-1} \bmod x^{d+1}$ is computed and stored (ctx->inv).

Proposition 2. Let $\deg R = \ell - 1$ with $d \le \ell - 1 \le 2d - 1$ , and let $R = Qf + S$ with $\deg S < d$ . Then $\operatorname{rev}_{\ell - d}(Q) = \operatorname{rev}_\ell(R) \cdot v \bmod x^{\ell - d}$ .

Proof. Reversing $R = Qf + S$ gives $\operatorname{rev}_\ell(R) = \operatorname{rev}_{\ell - d}(Q) \operatorname{rev}_{d+1}(f) + x^{\ell - d} \operatorname{rev}_d(S)$ . Modulo $x^{\ell - d}$ the last term vanishes, and multiplying by $v$ , the inverse of $\operatorname{rev}_{d+1}(f)$ modulo $x^{d+1}$ and hence modulo $x^{\ell - d}$ because $\ell - d \le d + 1$ , gives the claim.

The quotient thus costs one truncated product of length $\ell - d \le d$ and the remainder $S = R - Qf$ another product, about $2M(d)$ operations in all, independently of the number of terms of $f$ [GG2003, §9.1]. _fq_dense_reduce and _fq_nmod_dense_reduce call _fmpz_mod_poly_divrem_newton_n_preinv and _nmod_poly_divrem_newton_n_preinv, which require $\ell \le 2d$ ; this is the precondition of fq_reduce and fq_nmod_reduce for dense moduli. The sparse method has no such limit, and fq_set_fmpz_poly and fq_nmod_set_nmod_poly use a general division for longer inputs.

_fq_reduce and _fq_nmod_reduce use Algorithm 1 if $f$ has at most five nonzero terms (the flag sparse_modulus, set when the context is created) and Newton division otherwise. With $t \le 5$ and $\ell = 2d - 1$ , the sparse method costs at most $4(d - 1)$ multiplications.

Delayed reduction#

Since reduction is linear, a sum $\sum_i a_i b_i$ of products of elements can be reduced once: the products of the representatives are accumulated as an unreduced polynomial of length $2d - 1$ , over $\mathbb{Z}$ for fq or modulo $p$ for fq_nmod, and only the sum is reduced. The dot products of _fq_vec_dot and _fq_nmod_vec_dot (implemented in the gr contexts), and hence the classical matrix and polynomial multiplications, which are built on them, save all but one reduction per output entry. Kronecker substitution (Multiplying polynomials over finite fields, fq_mat_mul_KS) goes further: the whole product is computed over $\mathbb{Z}$ and each output coefficient is reduced once when it is unpacked.

Use in FLINT#

_fq_reduce, _fq_sparse_reduce, _fq_dense_reduce and fq_reduce in fq; _fq_nmod_reduce, _fq_nmod_sparse_reduce, _fq_nmod_dense_reduce and fq_nmod_reduce in fq_nmod.
fq_mul, fq_sqr, _fq_pow, fq_bit_unpack and the corresponding fq_nmod functions reduce every product.
The fq_zech multiplication algorithm for polynomials reduces the blocks of the substituted product with its own copy of Algorithm 1, accumulating several updates in one word when $(d - 1)(p - 1)^2 + p < 2^{\mathtt{FLINT\_BITS}}$ .

@misc{flint-doc-algorithms-finite-fields-reduction, author = {{The FLINT team}}, title = {{Reduction modulo the defining polynomial}}, howpublished = {FLINT: Fast Library for Number Theory, documentation, version 3.7.0-dev}, year = {2026}, url = {https://flintlib.org/doc/algorithms/finite-fields/reduction.html}, note = {Generated 2026-11-02} }